Biogas units for small vendors at cross-vendor markets
Biogas units for small vendors at cross-vendor markets
Type 3: Borderland with fragile context and underdeveloped regional integration infrastructure.
White Space Typology
Business White Space: Biogas units for vendors at cross-border markets address urgent clean cooking and waste management needs but face gaps in private sector engagement. Proven business models remain scarce despite strong demand and feedstock availability, due to limited awareness, high initial investment, and the absence of service delivery models tailored to informal market settings.
Business Model Description
Install small-scale biogas units at cross-border markets using livestock and organic waste as feedstock. Target food vendors, market cooperatives, and women’s groups as primary users. Operate through a shared-access or lease-to-own model with modest user fees for cooking energy. Partner with local authorities for waste management and site access. Finance through blended models combining grants, carbon financing, and social enterprise capital to reduce upfront costs and build viability.
How is this information gathered?
Cross-border investment opportunities with potential to contribute to sustainable development are based on Borderlands SDG Investor Maps.
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Region
Sector Classification
Renewable Resources and Alternative Energy
Borderland development need
Access to reliable energy remains critically low across the borderland. In Karamoja, grid electricity reaches only about 1% of households, while in West Pokot, access remains limited and often dependent on costly diesel generators. Power outages in urban centers like Moroto and Amudat further disrupt businesses, schools, and healthcare facilities. This chronic energy deficit constrains industrial growth, weakens service delivery, and limits livelihood diversification across the region. (11, 12, 13)
Borderland policy priority
The County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) for West Pokot and the Karamoja Integrated Development Plan (KIDP3) both prioritize expanding renewable energy access to support socio-economic development. West Pokot plans to establish a County Energy Centre, develop energy regulations, and promote clean cooking, while Karamoja's plan emphasizes solar grid integration, rural electrification, and access to energy for institutions. Nationally, the government of Uganda had planned to increase access to energy from 21% to 60% by 2025, while Kenya’s National Electrification Strategy aims at creating around 2 million new connections using Solar House Systems and mini-grid solutions. (1, 2, 45, 46)
Gender inequalities and marginalization issues
Women and youth in the borderland lack access to clean energy due to poverty, limited land ownership, and exclusion from decision-making. Women, in particular, bear the health burden of indoor air pollution from firewood and charcoal. (11, 12, 17)
Investment opportunities introduction
The borderland faces low rural electrification and rising demand in both Kenya and Uganda. Kenya aims for 2M new off-grid connections, requiring USD 2.8B in investment, while Uganda targets 60% access by 2025. With demand growing 10–13% annually and over 20M people still off-grid, decentralized renewable solutions (such as SHS and mini-grids) offer scalable, high-impact investment opportunities. (45, 46, 47)
High initial costs, limited distribution infrastructure, and poor financing mechanisms restrict adoption of renewable energy. Knowledge gaps in system maintenance and weak coordination between stakeholders further impede scale. Energy policies remain fragmented and poorly implemented at local levels. (11, 12)
Alternative Energy
Borderland development need
Frequent outages and limited grid access hinder productive energy use across the borderland. In West Pokot, cooperatives report up to six power cuts weekly, pushing reliance on costly diesel generators—up to 300 USD/month. These disruptions restrict milk processing, cold storage, and irrigation. Despite high solar potential and availability of livestock for biogas, uptake is low due to high costs, weak infrastructure, and limited awareness. Most households rely on firewood and charcoal for cooking and lighting, driving deforestation and respiratory health risks. (11, 12, 13)
Borderland policy priority
Karamoja’s KIDP3 promotes solar stations, mini solar water systems, and repairs to existing solar installations. It also supports biogas for cooking and lighting. West Pokot’s CIDP highlights solar tech innovation, clean jiko distribution, and technology transfer for sustainable off-grid energy. Both plans support awareness campaigns and training to accelerate adoption of solar and biogas solutions across public and private use cases. (1, 2)
Gender inequalities and marginalization issues
Women-led enterprises and agro-pastoral households struggle to adopt solar and biogas systems due to high upfront costs and limited financial tools tailored to their needs. Women's role in managing household energy is high, yet they remain underrepresented in energy project planning and technical training. Expanding access requires inclusive design and gender-sensitive financing mechanisms. (11, 12, 17)
Investment opportunities introduction
High solar irradiation creates favorable conditions for off-grid solar powering cold storage, irrigation, and dairy processing. Biogas has strong potential in agro-pastoral areas where animal waste is readily available. Investment in productive energy use can unlock SME growth, improve food preservation, and reduce fuelwood dependency. (11, 12)
Adoption of solar for productive use and biogas is limited by lack of affordable credit, insufficient technical capacity, and low awareness among end users. Most SMEs lack working capital for energy investments, and few service providers operate in remote borderland areas. Maintenance and after-sales services are also limited. (11, 12)
Biofuels
Pipeline Opportunity
Biogas units for small vendors at cross-vendor markets
Install small-scale biogas units at cross-border markets using livestock and organic waste as feedstock. Target food vendors, market cooperatives, and women’s groups as primary users. Operate through a shared-access or lease-to-own model with modest user fees for cooking energy. Partner with local authorities for waste management and site access. Finance through blended models combining grants, carbon financing, and social enterprise capital to reduce upfront costs and build viability.
Business Case
Market Size and Environment
< USD 50 million
5% - 10%
Major cross-border markets like Amudat, Moroto, Kacheliba, and Kapenguria host dozens of vendors each, many of whom are food sellers using firewood or charcoal. Demand from 10–20 vendors per market provides a reasonable baseline. Waste from vendors, abattoirs, and nearby schools offers ample feedstock, making biogas viable and scalable. If pilots prove successful, the model could expand beyond vendors to serve public offices at livestock markets, cold storage infrastructure, and even local electricity generation—unlocking broader opportunities for clean energy access and circular waste management. (25)
Indicative Return
15% – 20%
Biogas systems deliver 10–15% ROI over 4–6 years by replacing costly charcoal and firewood, cutting daily cooking fuel expenses by up to 60%. Lease-to-own or user-fee models ensure revenue recovery, while carbon credit eligibility can further boost returns. Case studies across East Africa confirm profitability in shared-use models. (25)
Investment Timeframe
Medium Term (5–10 years)
The investment horizon spans 4–6 years. Year 1 focuses on feasibility and setup, while Year 2 begins user onboarding and cost recovery. Full ROI is expected by Year 6, with long-term value realized through system durability and user retention. Timelines reflect behavior change needs and market infrastructure realities. (25)
Ticket Size
< USD 500,000
Market Risks and Scale Obstacles
Business - Business Model Unproven
Capital - Requires Subsidy
Capital - Limited Investor Interest
Expected Financing Model
Blended financing (risk sharing and public support)
EIOA Business Criteria
Potentially marketable: Biogas cuts fuel costs for vendors and meets waste challenges; with blended finance, it becomes viable via public-private partnerships, carbon credits, and cooperative user models. (12)
Sufficiently specific: Targets cross-border market vendors using small-scale biogas from organic waste, delivered through shared or lease-to-own systems in defined geographic locations. (25)
Potential for scale-up: Replicable across high-density markets in Karamoja and West Pokot; abundant feedstock and demand from vendors, schools, and abattoirs support regional expansion. (23)
Proven in-market: Small-scale pilots in East Africa (Kenya, Nigeria) show viability in vendor and institutional settings with fee-for-service or subsidized leasing models. (17, 20)
Impact Case
Sustainable Development Need
Most market vendors rely on charcoal or firewood, causing high fuel costs, indoor air pollution, and deforestation; clean cooking alternatives remain limited and unaffordable. (22, 24)
Cross-border markets generate large volumes of unmanaged livestock and food waste, leading to environmental health risks and missed energy recovery potential. (28)
Gender & Marginalisation
Women vendors rely on firewood and charcoal for cooking, exposing them to smoke, long hours, and health risks; clean, affordable alternatives are rarely accessible. (27)
Women in informal markets have limited access to energy assets or financing; few own clean cooking equipment or participate in energy cooperatives. (27)
Expected Development Outcome
Improves access to clean, affordable cooking energy for market vendors, reducing health risks, fuel costs, and environmental degradation linked to firewood use. (12, 19, 26)
Strengthens local waste management by converting organic waste into energy, improving sanitation, reducing pollution, and creating green jobs in informal markets. (12, 19, 26)
Supports stability by creating shared economic assets and services across communities, reducing resource-related tensions and enhancing cross-border cooperation at market hubs. (12, 19, 26)
Gender & Marginalisation
Provides women with access to clean, affordable cooking energy, reducing time, health, and financial burdens tied to traditional fuels. (27)
Involves women and marginalized groups in cooperative ownership and management of energy infrastructure, increasing their agency and income. (27)
Reduces exposure to indoor air pollution and unsafe cooking environments in informal markets, benefiting vulnerable women and youth vendors. (27)
Primary SDGs addressed
7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology
5.a.1 (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Directly impacted stakeholders
People
Gender inequality and/or marginalization
Planet
Corporates
Public sector
Indirectly impacted stakeholders
People
Gender inequality and/or marginalization
Planet
Corporates
Public sector
Outcome Risks
Affordability gap: User fees, even if modest, may exclude the poorest vendors or force them to rely on traditional fuels, limiting equitable access.
Waste diversion trade-offs: Diverting organic waste to biogas may reduce availability for other informal uses (e.g., animal feed), impacting vulnerable groups relying on waste streams.
Conflict risk: Competition over organic waste sources or siting of biogas units may spark tensions among vendor groups or between communities.
Impact Risks
Without adoption, vendors may continue using charcoal and firewood, leading to ongoing health risks, high energy costs, and environmental degradation.
If women are not targeted or empowered through design, they may miss out on energy access and economic benefits, reinforcing existing inequalities.
Failure to scale biogas use may result in continued methane emissions from unmanaged waste and deforestation from firewood use, worsening climate impacts.
IMP Impact Classification
What
Exclusion of women, affordability gaps, or poor adoption could limit outcomes and unintentionally reinforce inequalities or resource tensions.
Who
Women vendors, youth, and informal market actors in Karamoja and West Pokot benefit directly from cleaner energy and economic inclusion.
Risk
Exclusion of women, affordability gaps, or poor adoption could limit outcomes and unintentionally reinforce inequalities or resource tensions.
Enabling Environment
White Space Typology
Business White Space: Biogas units for vendors at cross-border markets address urgent clean cooking and waste management needs but face gaps in private sector engagement. Proven business models remain scarce despite strong demand and feedstock availability, due to limited awareness, high initial investment, and the absence of service delivery models tailored to informal market settings.
Main Barriers
Lack of proven delivery models in informal markets: There are few tested models for deploying, operating, and maintaining shared biogas units in dense, informal vendor settings like cross-border markets. This creates uncertainty around cost recovery, user retention, and system durability.
Limited access to blended capital at micro-scale: While large-scale biodigesters attract funding, small communal systems (~$10K–$50K) fall between donor grants and commercial loans. Most vendors lack collateral or financial history, making it hard to secure lease-to-own financing or working capital.
Absence of regulatory standards for small-scale biogas: There is no clear guidance on technical standards, safety, licensing, or quality control for biogas units used in informal public spaces. This regulatory vacuum limits public sector endorsement and increases investor risk.
General Policy Environment
Third Karamoja Integrated Development Plan (KIDP3) 2021/22 – 2025/26: KIDP3 promotes sustainable energy and waste management solutions for urban markets and institutions, supporting decentralized systems like biogas to improve health and economic resilience. (1)
West Pokot County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2023 – 2027: The CIDP prioritizes clean energy access, inclusive infrastructure in markets, and improved solid waste management—key enablers for market-based biogas initiatives. (2)
Uganda Renewable Energy Policy (2007): Supports the use of biomass and biogas technologies, especially for institutional cooking and productive uses, encouraging local energy solutions in off-grid areas. (29)
Kenya Energy Act (2019): Establishes a framework for renewable energy, including bioenergy, and mandates promotion of clean cooking technologies, enabling county-level deployment of biogas units. (30)
Uganda National Environment Act (2019): Emphasizes circular economy and organic waste utilization, reinforcing the value of biogas as a climate-resilient waste-to-energy solution in market and municipal settings. (31)
Policy Recommendations
Support pilot projects through public-private partnerships to test shared biogas models in markets, generate evidence on user behavior, and de-risk entry for private energy providers.
Create targeted financial instruments (e.g., lease-to-own funds, carbon-backed grants) for small-scale communal biogas units, addressing the financing gap for low-income vendor settings.
Develop national guidelines and safety standards for small-scale biogas systems in informal markets, enabling certification, oversight, and integration into public energy planning.
Integrate biogas from market and organic waste into national clean cooking and waste management strategies to unlock subsidies, municipal support, and carbon finance mechanisms.
General Regulatory Environment
Uganda Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations (1998): Requires EIAs for energy and waste projects; relevant for siting biogas units in market areas and ensuring compliance with environmental safeguards. (32)
Kenya Energy (Bioenergy) Regulations (Draft): Though still under development, these regulations aim to formalize safety, standards, and licensing for biogas systems, critical for public infrastructure deployment.
Uganda Public Health Act (Cap 281): Mandates safe waste disposal and sanitation in public spaces; supports integration of biogas into market waste systems as a health-compliant solution.
Kenya County Governments Act (2012): Empowers counties to regulate solid waste and energy services in markets, allowing local bylaws to support biogas infrastructure and public-private models.
Uganda Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff (REFiT) Guidelines (2016): While mainly for electricity, REFiT inclusion of biogas technologies signals national support and opens pathways for broader financial incentives.
Regulatory Reccomendations
Uganda Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations (1998): Requires EIAs for energy and waste projects; relevant for siting biogas units in market areas and ensuring compliance with environmental safeguards. (32)
Kenya Energy (Bioenergy) Regulations (Draft): Though still under development, these regulations aim to formalize safety, standards, and licensing for biogas systems, critical for public infrastructure deployment.
Uganda Public Health Act (Cap 281): Mandates safe waste disposal and sanitation in public spaces; supports integration of biogas into market waste systems as a health-compliant solution.
Kenya County Governments Act (2012): Empowers counties to regulate solid waste and energy services in markets, allowing local bylaws to support biogas infrastructure and public-private models.
Uganda Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff (REFiT) Guidelines (2016): While mainly for electricity, REFiT inclusion of biogas technologies signals national support and opens pathways for broader financial incentives.
General Cross-border Trade Policy and Regulatory environment
EAC Customs Union Protocol (2005):: Facilitates free movement of goods across borders, enabling duty-free import of biogas components like digesters and piping, which lowers upfront costs for installations in border markets. (37)
IGAD Protocol on Transhumance (2021): Supports shared resource use across borders, including livestock and waste management infrastructure; this helps justify biogas units using livestock waste in shared market ecosystems. (38%)
African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Agreement Promotes harmonization of clean energy trade and technology standards across African countries, supporting regional supply chains for biogas systems and related services. (39)
General Cross-border Trade Policy and Regulatory Recommendations
Harmonize import duties and VAT exemptions on biogas technologies across Uganda and Kenya under EAC frameworks to reduce cross-border cost disparities and incentivize regional supply chains.
Establish bilateral guidelines for shared use and maintenance of biogas infrastructure at border markets, clarifying roles, safety standards, and access rights for cross-border vendor groups.
Simplify customs procedures for importing small-scale biogas equipment by including it in fast-track clearance lists under AfCFTA and EAC trade protocols, reducing delays for installers and cooperatives.
Capital structure and funding
Capital Sources: Existing initiatives rely on donor grants, social enterprise capital, and pilot funding from international actors (e.g., GIZ, SNV, MCFA). Identified opportunities will require blended capital combining international grants, carbon finance, and local government in-kind support. (17, 23)
Average Capital Size: Pilot biogas units range from $10,000–$50,000 depending on scale and components. Aggregated investment needs for market-wide solutions may reach $100,000–$250,000, requiring flexible and phased funding aligned with cooperative or shared-access use models. (25)
Trends in Capital Flows: Capital inflows remain project-based and limited to donor-backed pilots, with no widespread commercial replication. Recent growth in clean cooking finance is concentrated in solar and LPG, leaving biogas underfunded despite development potential. (23)
Financial incentives
Uganda Energy Credit Capitalisation Company (UECCC) offers concessional loans and guarantees for renewable energy, supporting institutions like cooperatives to access capital for small-scale biogas systems.
Kenya's Draft Green Fiscal Incentives Policy proposes VAT and duty exemptions for renewable energy equipment, including biogas units, making cross-border importation and deployment more affordable.
Financial recommendations
Uganda Energy Credit Capitalisation Company (UECCC) offers concessional loans and guarantees for renewable energy, supporting institutions like cooperatives to access capital for small-scale biogas systems.
Kenya's Draft Green Fiscal Incentives Policy proposes VAT and duty exemptions for renewable energy equipment, including biogas units, making cross-border importation and deployment more affordable.
Security Environment
Sporadic cross-border cattle raids can disrupt vendor activity and deter infrastructure investments in markets, especially in early-stage deployments of biogas units. (41, 42, 44)
Tensions between pastoralist communities over waste access or land use may arise. (41, 42, 44)
Limited formal security may expose shared biogas units to vandalism or theft, raising maintenance and insurance costs. (43)
Delays in securing permissions or resolving disputes around market siting and ownership models could stall implementation or reduce uptake by marginalized groups. (43)
Socio-political environment
As biogas production gives new value to market waste, competition may arise among vendor groups, local elites, or informal waste collectors, risking exclusion or conflict. (7, 8)
Overlapping mandates between local governments, market committees, and informal actors can create confusion or conflict over ownership, fees, and responsibilities. (12, 13, 44)
Risk mitigation strategies
Ensure women and marginalized vendors are represented in cooperative boards and decision-making bodies to promote equitable access and social buy-in.
Formalize feedstock access agreements through local bylaws or MOUs. Clarify waste ownership, reduce disputes, and ensure consistent supply by involving vendors, waste collectors, and local authorities.
Align Kenya and Uganda local authorities, market committees, and trade regulators to resolve border-specific implementation or legal obstacles.
Start with pilot units in larger markets, lower-risk areas and allow communities to shape access rules, building trust and demonstrating value.
Incorporate customary conflict resolution actors into project planning to anticipate and defuse tensions around land, resources, or leadership.
Actors in EIOA Space
HomeBiogas Kenya, Biojoule Kenya Limited, Swenya Biogas
County Government of West Pokot, Ministry for Karamoja Affairs, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (Uganda), inistry of Energy (Kenya)
World Bank, European Investment Bank
Biogas Solutions Uganda Ltd (BSUL), Kenya Biogas Program (KBP), SNV Netherlands Development Organisation
Africa Biogas Partnership Programme (ABPP), African Biodigester Component (ABC) Project
References
Sector and Subsector Sources
- (1) Ministry for Karamoja Affairs & Office of the Prime Minister. (2021). The Third Karamoja Integrated Development Plan (KIDP 3) 2021–2025.
- (2) County Government of West Pokot. (2023). Third County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2023–2027.
- (3) Catley, A., et al. (2021). Introducing pathways to resilience in the Karamoja Cluster. Pastoralism, 11(28). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-021-00214-4
- (4) UNDP Africa Borderlands Centre. (2022). The Karamoja Cluster: Rapid Conflict Analysis and Gender Assessment (Kenya and Uganda).
- (5) Kenya High Commission Kampala. (2025). Kenya-Uganda Trade & Investments. Accessed February 2025. https://www.kenyamissionkampala.ug/kenya-uganda-trade-investments
- (6) Columbia SIPA. (2020). Ethical Cross-Border Trading between Kenya and Uganda by Women-led Micro and Small Enterprises.
- (7) Aklilu, Y. (2017). Livestock Trade in Karamoja, Uganda: An Update of Market Dynamics and Trends. USAID. https://karamojaresilience.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/tufts_1803_krsu_livestock_trade_karamoja_v2_online.pdf
- (8) Arasio, R.L., and E. Stites. 2022. “The Return of Conflict in Karamoja, Uganda: Community Perspectives.” Karamoja Resilience Support Unit (KRSU), Feinstein International Center, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at Tufts University, Kamp
- (9) Interpeace, IGAD, & FAO. (2023). Conflict, Climate Change, Food Security and Mobility in the Karamoja Cluster. https://www.interpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Conflict-climate-change-food-security-and-mobility-in-the-Karamoja-Cluster.pdf
- (10) Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED). (2025). Regional Overview – Africa, February 2025. https://acleddata.com/2025/02/10/africa-overview-february-2025
- (11) Tonny Odokonyero and Francis Mwesigye. “Targeting and Subsidizing Electricity Connection: The case of a Hybrid Financing Framework in Uganda”, UDB, Policy Briefing Note No. 2023/001, (April 2023): https://udbl.co.ug/UDB%20Electricity%20Connection%20Intervention%20Policy%202.pdf.
- (12) Patrick Wamalwa et al. “Adoption of Improved Biomass Cook Stoves: Case Study of Baringo and West Pokot Counties in Kenya”, Journal of Sustainable Bioenergy Systems, (June 2022): https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=119421.`
- (13) Lena Dente. “Understanding the Opportunities and Challenges of a Global Renewable Energy Goal in the Context of COP Talks “, World Future Council, Accessed February 2025: https://www.worldfuturecouncil.org/global-renewable-energy-goal/#:~:text=Scaling%20up%20renewable%20energy%20may,for%20both%20agriculture%20and%20solar.
- (14) Alex-Oke, T., Bamisile, O., Cai, D., Adun, H., Ukwuoma, C. C., Tenebe, S. A., & Huang, Q. (2025). Renewable energy market in Africa: Opportunities, progress, challenges, and future prospects. Energy Strategy Reviews, 59, 101700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2024.101700
- (15) Lighting Africa. 2020. The Market Opportunity for Productive Use Leveraging Solar Energy (PULSE) in Uganda. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. https://www.lightingglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Uganda-PULSE-Report_2022.pdf
- (16) GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit). Uganda: Renewable Energy – Factsheet. Bonn/Eschborn: GIZ, 2022. Available at: https://www.giz.de/de/downloads/giz2022-en-uganda-renewable-energy.pdf
EIOA Sources
- (17) HomeBiogas Ventures Limited. Scaling up access to clean cooking through biogas solutions in Kenya. NEFCO, 2023. Available at: https://www.nefco.int/news/new-portfolio-company-in-kenya-scaling-up-access-to-clean-cooking-through-biogas-solutions
- (18) Takamoto Biogas. Kenya: Providing reliable and affordable clean energy to small-scale dairy farmers. INFORSE Local Solutions. Available at: https://localsolutions.inforse.org/pages/Case_example2.1.php?ID=1738
- (19) Njenga, M., & Mendum, R. Africa Biogas Partnership Program: A Review of Clean Cooking Implementation through Market Development in East Africa. ResearchGate, 2018. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325901790_Africa_Biogas_Partnership_Program_A_Review_of_Clean_Cooking_Implementation_through_Market_Development_in_East_Africa
- (20) C40 Cities. Organic Waste Diversion through a Biogas Plant at Ikosi Fruit Market – Request for Proposals. C40 Cities Finance Facility, 2024. Available at: https://www.c40.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/20240726-RFP-Organic-waste-diversion-through-a-biogas-plant-at-Ikosi-Fruit-Market.pdf
- (22) Interviews with private renewable energy actor in West Pokot
- (23) Interview with Climate Impact Investing Fund with operations in West Pokot
- (24) Interview with Energy Solutions company with operations in Kenya and Uganda
- (25) Estimations based on interview data with district officials, renewable energy companies operating in the borderland, and regional studies.
- (26) Biogas Support Programme Uganda. Design of biogas plant for rural households in Uganda. 2011. Available at: https://www.build-a-biogas-plant.com/PDF/Biogas_Uganda.pdf
- (27) World Biogas Association. Women in Biogas Report 2024: Gender Equality in the Global Biogas Sector. London: World Biogas Association, 2024. Available at: https://www.worldbiogasassociation.org/women-in-biogas-report-2024
- (28) Interview with the Moroto livestock market committee
- (29) Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (Uganda). Renewable Energy Policy for Uganda. Kampala: Government of Uganda, 2007.
- (30) Republic of Kenya. The Energy Act, 2019. Nairobi: National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney-General.
- (31) Republic of Uganda. National Environment Act, 2019. Kampala: Uganda Printing and Publishing Corporation.
- (32) Republic of Uganda. Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 1998. Kampala: Uganda Gazette Legal Notice No. 13, under the National Environment Act Cap 153.
- (33) Republic of Kenya. Energy (Bioenergy) Regulations (Draft). Nairobi: Ministry of Energy and Petroleum, Republic of Kenya.
- (34) Republic of Uganda. Public Health Act (Cap 281). Kampala: Uganda Printing and Publishing Corporation.
- (35) Republic of Kenya. County Governments Act, 2012. Nairobi: National Council for Law Reporting with the Authority of the Attorney-General.
- (36) Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA), Uganda. Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff (REFiT) Guidelines, 2016. Kampala: ERA.
- (37) Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). Protocol on Transhumance in the IGAD Region. Djibouti: IGAD, 2021.
- (38) African Union Commission. Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Kigali: African Union, 2018.
- (39) Uganda Energy Credit Capitalisation Company (UECCC). Energy Financing Frameworks and Programs. Kampala: UECCC. www.ueccc.or.ug
- (40) Republic of Kenya. Draft National Green Fiscal Incentives Policy Framework. Nairobi: National Treasury and Planning, Government of Kenya.
- (41) Gray, S., Sundal, M., Wiebusch, B., Little, M. A., Leslie, P. W., & Pike, I. L. (2003). “Cattle Raiding, Cultural Survival, and Adaptability of East African Pastoralists”. Current Anthropology, 44(S5), S3–S30. Retrieved from: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/377669
- (42) Stites, E. (2022). Conflict in Karamoja: A Synthesis of Historical and Current Perspectives, 1920–2022. Karamoja Resilience Support Unit (KRSU), Feinstein International Center, Tufts University.
- (43) USAID. (2023). Applied Political Economy Analysis for the Karamoja Cluster. Washington, DC: USAID.
- (44) Interview with cross-border trade associations.
- (45) US Agency for International Aid (2019). Off-Grid Solar Market Assessment - Kenya. Power Africa Off-grid Project.
- (46) National Planning Authority. National Development Plan III (NDPIII) 2020/21 – 2024/25
- (47) Mokveld, K. and von Eije (RVO.nl), S. (2019). Final Energy report Uganda. https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2019/02/Final-Energy-report-Uganda.pdf